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the professional classes

Толкование Перевод

1 the professional classes

Общая лексика: профессиональные группы (адвокаты, учителя и т. п.), лица свободной профессии или интеллигентного труда - адвокаты, врачи, архитекторы, преподаватели (и т. п.), адвокаты, учителя и т. п. (собирательно)

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > the professional classes
2 professional

professional [prəˊfeʃnǝl]

1. a

1) име́ющий профе́ссию или специа́льность;

the professional classes адвока́ты, учителя́ и т.п.

2) профессиона́льный

2. n

1) профессиона́л

2) спортсме́н-профессиона́л

Англо-русский словарь Мюллера > professional
3 professional

1. adjective
1) (of profession) Berufs[ausbildung, -leben]; beruflich [Qualifikation, Laufbahn, Tätigkeit, Stolz, Ansehen]

professional body — Berufsorganisation, die

professional advice — fachmännischer Rat

professional standards — Leistungsniveau, das

2) (worthy of profession) (in technical expertise) fachmännisch; (in attitude) professionell; (in experience) routiniert

3) (engaged in profession)

professional people — Angehörige hoch qualifizierter Berufe

‘apartment to let to professional woman’ — "Wohnung an berufstätige Dame zu vermieten"

the professional class[es] — die gehobenen Berufe

4) (by profession) gelernt; (not amateur) Berufs[musiker, -sportler, -soldat, -fotograf]; Profi[sportler]

5) (paid) Profi[sport, -boxen, -fußball, -tennis]

go or turn professional — Profi werden

be in the professional army — Berufssoldat sein

be in the professional theatre/on the professional stage — beruflich am Theater/als Schauspieler arbeiten
2. noun
(trained person, lit. or fig.) Fachmann, der/Fachfrau, die; (non-amateur; also Sport, Theatre) Profi, der

* * *

[-ʃə-]

adjective ( negative unprofessional)

1) (of a profession: professional skill.) Berufs-...

2) (of a very high standard: a very professional performance.) professionell

3) (earning money by performing, or giving instruction, in a sport or other activity that is a pastime for other people; not amateur: a professional musician/golfer.) Berufs-...

* * *

pro·fes·sion·al

[prəˈfeʃ^ən^əl]

I. adj

1. (of a profession) beruflich, Berufs-

are you meeting with me in a personal or \professional capacity? ist Ihr Treffen mit mir privater oder geschäftlicher Natur?

he is a \professional troubleshooter er ist ein professioneller Krisenmanager

\professional career berufliche Laufbahn [o Karriere]

to be a \professional courtesy zu den beruflichen Gepflogenheiten gehören

\professional dress Berufskleidung f

\professional education no pl Berufsausbildung f

\professional expertise no pl Fachkenntnis f, Fachkompetenz f

\professional experience Berufserfahrung f

\professional interest berufliches Interesse

\professional jargon/journal/literature Fachjargon m/-zeitschrift f/-literatur f

\professional misconduct standeswidriges Verhalten, Berufspflichtverletzung f

\professional name Künstlername m

\professional qualifications berufliche Qualifikationen

\professional skill Fachkompetenz f, Sachkompetenz f

\professional standard Berufsstandard m

2. (not tradesman) freiberuflich, akademisch

\professional man/woman Akademiker m/Akademikerin f

\professional people Angehörige pl der freien [o akademischen] Berufe

\professional types ( fam) Akademiker(innen) m(f)

3. (expert) fachmännisch, fachlich

is that your personal or \professional opinion? ist das Ihre private Meinung oder Ihre Meinung als Fachmann?

\professional advice fachmännischer Rat

4. ( approv: businesslike) professionell, fachmännisch

to maintain \professional conduct professionell auftreten

to do a \professional job etw fachmännisch erledigen

\professional manner professionelles Auftreten

in a \professional manner fachmännisch

to look \professional professionell aussehen

5. (not amateur) Berufs-; SPORT Profi-

\professional career Profilaufbahn f, Profikarriere f

\professional dancer/gambler/soldier Berufstänzer(in) m(f)/-spieler(in) m(f)/-soldat(in) m(f)

\professional player Profispieler(in) m(f)

in \professional sports im Profisport

to be a \professional writer von Beruf Schriftsteller(in) m(f) sein

to go [or turn] \professional Profi werden; SPORT ins Profilager [über]wechseln fam

6. ( fam: habitual) notorisch

\professional liar notorischer Lügner/notorische Lügnerin, Lügenbold m fam

\professional matchmaker professioneller Ehestifter/professionelle Ehestifterin

II. n

1. (not an amateur) Fachmann, -frau m, f; SPORT Profi m

2. (not a tradesman) Akademiker(in) m(f), Angehörige(r) f(m) der freien [o akademischen] Berufe

* * *
[prə'feSənl]
1. adj

1) Berufs-, beruflich; opinion fachmännisch, fachlich; football, tennis professionell

their professional ability — ihre beruflichen Fähigkeiten

professional army/soldier — Berufsarmee m/-soldat(in) m(f)

his professional life — sein Berufsleben

our relationship is purely professional —

a professional thief — ein professioneller Dieb

professional criminal — Berufsverbrecher(in) m(f)

professional rioter — Krawalltourist(in) m(f)

we need your professional help here — hier brauchen wir Ihre fachmännische Hilfe

he's now doing it on a professional basis — er macht das jetzt hauptberuflich

in his professional capacity as a doctor — in seiner Eigenschaft als Arzt

to be a professional singer/author etc —

"flat to let to quiet professional gentleman" — "Wohnung zu vermieten an ruhigen gut situierten Herrn"

the pub is used mainly by professional men — das Lokal wird hauptsächlich von Angehörigen der gehobenen Berufe besucht

the professional classes — die gehobenen Berufe, die höheren Berufsstände (dated)

to seek/take professional advice — fachmännischen Rat suchen/einholen

it's not our professional practice — es gehört nicht zu unseren geschäftlichen Gepflogenheiten

to turn or go professional — Profi werden

2) (= skilled, competent) piece of work etc fachmännisch, fachgemäß, fachgerecht; worker, person gewissenhaft; company, approach professionell; (= expert) performance kompetent, sachkundig, professionell

he didn't make a very professional job of that — er hat das nicht sehr fachmännisch erledigt

he handled the matter in a very professional manner — er hat die Angelegenheit in sehr kompetenter Weise gehandhabt

that's not a very professional attitude to your work —

it's not up to professional standards — es entspricht nicht fachlichen Normen

a typed letter looks more professional — ein maschine(n)geschriebener Brief sieht professioneller aus

3) (inf) worrier, moaner notorisch, gewohnheitsmäßig

2. n
Profi m
* * *

professional [prəˈfeʃənl]

A adj (adv professionally)

1. Berufs…, beruflich, Amts…, Standes…:

professional association Berufsgenossenschaft f;

professional ethics pl Berufsethos n;

professional hono(u)r Berufsehre f;

professional jealousy Brot-, Konkurrenzneid m;

professional life Berufsleben n;

professional name Künstlername m;

professional pride Standesdünkel m;

professional secrecy ( oder discretion) Berufsgeheimnis n, Schweigepflicht f;

professional secret Berufsgeheimnis n; → academic.ru/47220/misconduct">misconduct B 2

2. Fach…, Berufs…, fachlich:

professional competence Fachkompetenz f;

professional school Fach-, Berufsschule f;

professional studies pl Fachstudium n;

in a professional way berufsmäßig, professionell;

professional man Mann m vom Fach ( → A 4)

3. Berufs…, professionell ( auch SPORT):

professional boxing Berufsboxen n;

professional career Profikarriere f;

professional foul (Fußball) Notbremse f fig;

commit a professional foul die Notbremse ziehen;

professional offer Profiangebot n;

professional player Profi m;

professional record Kampfrekord m (eines Berufsboxers);

professional team Profimannschaft f

4. freiberuflich, akademisch:

professional man Angehörige(r) m eines freien Berufes, Akademiker m ( → A 2);

the professional classes die höheren Berufsstände

5. fachlich ausgebildet, gelernt:

he’s a professional gardener

6. unentwegt, pej Berufs…:

professional patriot

7. a) (very) professional (ausgesprochen) gekonnt

b) pej routiniert:

his professional smile

B s

1. SPORT

a) Berufssportler(in) oder -spieler(in), Profi m:

turn professional ins Profilager überwechseln;

his first year as a professional sein erstes Profijahr

b) (Golf-, Tennis- etc) Lehrer(in)

2. Fachmann m, -frau f

3. Angehörige(r) m/f(m) eines freien Berufes, Akademiker(in)

* * *
1. adjective
1) (of profession) Berufs[ausbildung, -leben]; beruflich [Qualifikation, Laufbahn, Tätigkeit, Stolz, Ansehen]

professional body — Berufsorganisation, die

professional advice — fachmännischer Rat

professional standards — Leistungsniveau, das

2) (worthy of profession) (in technical expertise) fachmännisch; (in attitude) professionell; (in experience) routiniert

3) (engaged in profession)

professional people — Angehörige hoch qualifizierter Berufe

‘apartment to let to professional woman’ — "Wohnung an berufstätige Dame zu vermieten"

the professional class[es] — die gehobenen Berufe

4) (by profession) gelernt; (not amateur) Berufs[musiker, -sportler, -soldat, -fotograf]; Profi[sportler]

5) (paid) Profi[sport, -boxen, -fußball, -tennis]

go or turn professional — Profi werden

be in the professional army — Berufssoldat sein

be in the professional theatre/on the professional stage — beruflich am Theater/als Schauspieler arbeiten
2. noun
(trained person, lit. or fig.) Fachmann, der/Fachfrau, die; (non-amateur; also Sport, Theatre) Profi, der

* * *

adj.

fachgerecht adj.

professionell adj. n.

Profi -s m.

fachgemäß adj.

English-german dictionary > professional
4 professional

- ʃə-

adjective ( negative unprofessional)

1) (of a profession: professional skill.) profesional

2) (of a very high standard: a very professional performance.) profesional, muy bueno

3) (earning money by performing, or giving instruction, in a sport or other activity that is a pastime for other people; not amateur: a professional musician/golfer.) profesional

professional adj profesional

professional

tr[prə'feʃənəl]

adjective

1 (gen) profesional

■ they argue for a professional army abogan por un ejército profesional

noun

1 profesional nombre masulino o femenino

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

to go professional / turn professional volverse profesional

to take professional advice asesorarse por un,-a profesional

professional [prə'fɛʃənəl] adj

: profesional

♦ professionally adv

professional n

: profesional mf

professional

adj.

• de profesión adj.

• profesional adj.

n.

• profesional s.m.

I prə'feʃṇəl, prə'feʃənḷ
adjective

1) ( as opposed to amateur) (before n) <musician/golfer> profesional; < soldier> de carrera

to go o turn professional — hacerse* profesional

2)

a) (done, given by professionals) (before n)

to take professional advice — asesorarse con un profesional (or un experto, técnico etc)

the break-in was a professional job — los que entraron eran profesionales del robo or ladrones profesionales

b) ( befitting a professional)

she made a very professional job of it — lo hizo como un experto

II

noun profesional mf; ( competent person) experto, -ta m,f

[prǝ'feʃǝnl]
1. ADJ

1) (=non-amateur) [sport, sportsperson, musician] profesional; [soldier] de carrera

she's a professional singer — es cantante profesional

he plays professional football — se dedica al fútbol profesional

that boy's a professional trouble-maker * — iro, hum ese niño es un alborotador profesional

• to seek or take professional advice — consultar a un profesional

before spending any money you ought to seek professional advice — deberías consultar a un profesional antes de gastar nada de dinero

I have sought professional advice and have been advised to go ahead with the case — he consultado a un abogado y me ha aconsejado seguir adelante con el caso

• she needs professional help for her depression — necesita ayuda de un profesional para superar su depresión

• to turn or go professional — hacerse profesional, profesionalizarse

2) (=employed in a profession)

the flat is ideal for the professional single person — el piso es idóneo para el profesional soltero

3) (=relating to a profession) profesional

he began his professional life as an accountant — se inició en su vida profesional como contable

his professional conduct has come under scrutiny — se está investigando su conducta profesional

4) (=appropriate to a professional)

I was impressed by his professional approach — su profesionalidad me causó muy buena impresión

that wasn't a very professional thing to do — eso no fue propio de un profesional, eso fue una falta de profesionalidad

5) (=competent, skilled)

it was a very professional performance — fue una representación hecha con mucha profesionalidad

• a professional job — obra f de un profesional or experto

you could tell the burglary was a professional job — se veía que el robo fue obra de un profesional or de un experto

you've done a really professional job of the decorating — has pintado la casa como un verdadero profesional or experto

2. N

1) (=non-amateur) profesional mf

2) (=person employed in a profession) profesional mf

• health professional — profesional mf de la medicina

3) (=expert) profesional mf, experto(-a) m / f

the killing was the work of a professional — el asesinato fue obra de un profesional or de un experto

Brenner was no ordinary thief, but a true professional — Brenner no era un ladrón cualquiera, sino un verdadero profesional or experto

• golf professional — golfista mf profesional

3.

CPD

professional charges NPL — honorarios mpl profesionales

the professional classes NPL — la gente de carrera

professional fees NPL — honorarios mpl profesionales

professional foul N — falta f profesional

professional liability N — responsabilidad f profesional

professional misconduct N — falta f de ética profesional

he was found guilty of professional misconduct — se le declaró culpable de falta de ética profesional

professional practice N — (=method) práctica f profesional; (=career) vida f profesional

the professional practice of homoeopathy — la práctica profesional de la homeopatía

in his professional practice he had come across many patients with similar symptoms — en su vida profesional había atendido a muchos pacientes con síntomas parecidos

it is not good professional practice — no es apropiado en el ejercicio de la profesión

professional qualification N — título m profesional

professional school N — (US) escuela f profesional superior

professional services NPL — servicios mpl prestados por profesionales

professional skills NPL — técnicas fpl de la profesión

professional standing N — reputación f profesional

professional training N — formación f profesional

* * *

I [prə'feʃṇəl, prə'feʃənḷ]
adjective

1) ( as opposed to amateur) (before n) <musician/golfer> profesional; < soldier> de carrera

to go o turn professional — hacerse* profesional

2)

a) (done, given by professionals) (before n)

to take professional advice — asesorarse con un profesional (or un experto, técnico etc)

the break-in was a professional job — los que entraron eran profesionales del robo or ladrones profesionales

b) ( befitting a professional)

she made a very professional job of it — lo hizo como un experto

II

noun profesional mf; ( competent person) experto, -ta m,f

English-spanish dictionary > professional
5 professional

1. [prəʹfeʃ(ə)nəl] n
1. 1) профессионал; человек интеллигентного труда или свободной профессии

2) спортсмен-профессионал

to turn /to go/ professional - стать профессионалом; перейти в профессионалы

2. кадровый военнослужащий

3. инструктор по физкультуре, спорту (в клубе и т. п.); преподаватель физкультуры ( в школе)
2. [prəʹfeʃ(ə)nəl] a
1. профессиональный

professional skill - профессиональное мастерство; производственная квалификация

professional etiquette /courtesy/ - профессиональная этика

professional advice - совет /консультация/ специалиста

2. имеющий профессию или специальность; профессиональный

professional painter - художник-профессионал

professional politician - профессиональный политический деятель, профессиональный политик

professional and amateur companies - труппы актёров-профессионалов и любителей

professional cricketer [golfer] - профессиональный игрок в крикет [в гольф]

the professional classes - лица свободной профессии или интеллигентного труда - адвокаты, врачи, архитекторы, преподаватели и т. п.

professional man [woman] - человек /лицо/ свободной профессии

professional force - воен. регулярные войска

professional soldier - кадровый военный

НБАРС > professional
6 professional

prəˈfeʃənl
1. прил.
1) профессиональный
2) имеющий профессию/специальность professional classes
2. сущ.
1) профессионал;
человек интеллектуального труда или свободной профессии
2) спортсмен-профессионал
3) тренер, инструктор
1. n
1) специалист;

2) профессионал;

2. a
1) профессиональный;

2) обученный, имеющий профессию или специальность ~ имеющий профессию или специальность;
the professional classes адвокаты, учителя salaried ~ специалист на твердом окладе

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > professional
7 professional

[-ʃə-]

adjective ( negative unprofessional)

1) (of a profession: professional skill.) poklicen

2) (of a very high standard: a very professional performance.) strokoven

3) (earning money by performing, or giving instruction, in a sport or other activity that is a pastime for other people; not amateur: a professional musician/golfer.) poklicen

* * *
I [prəféšənəl]
adjective ( professionally adverb)

profesionalen, poklicen, stanovski; strokoven; sport profesionalen; ki ima svoboden ali akademski poklic; strokovno usposobljen (npr. vrtnar)

professional discretion — dolžnost molčečnosti (zdravnik)

professional ethics — poklicna etika

professional school — strokovna šola

in a professional way — poklicno

professional man — intelektualni delavec

the professional classes — višji poklicni stanovi
II [prəféšənəl]
noun

strokovnjak, intelcktualec; sport profesionalec, poklicni športnik; (golf) upravnik igrišča

English-Slovenian dictionary > professional
8 professional

[prə΄feʃnəl] n մասնագետ, արհեստավարժ, արհեստագետ. պրոֆեսիո նալ. a professional performance բարձրարվեստ ներկայացում. seek professional advice դիմել մասնագետին խորհրդի հա մար. a professional footballer/ writer մասնագիտությամբ ֆուտ բոլիստ.պրոֆեսիոնալ գրող. professional people, the professional classes մտավորականներ. turn professional մրզ. պրոֆեսիոնալ/մասնագետ դառնալ

English-Armenian dictionary > professional
9 professional

[prəˈfeʃənl]

professional имеющий профессию или специальность; the professional classes адвокаты, учителя salaried professional специалист на твердом окладе

English-Russian short dictionary > professional
10 professional

1. adjective

1) профессиональный

2) имеющий профессию или специальность; the professional classes адвокаты, учителя и т. п.

2. noun

1) профессионал

2) спортсмен-профессионал

* * *

1 (a) профессиональный

2 (n) квалифицированный специалист; лицо свободной профессии; повышение квалификации; профессионал; человек интеллигентного труда

* * *

профессиональный

* * *
[pro'fes·sion·al || prə'feʃnl] n. профессионал, спортсмен-профессионал adj. профессиональный, имеющий профессию, имеющий специальность
* * *

профессионал

профессионален

профессиональный

* * *
1. прил. 1) профессиональный 2) имеющий профессию/специальность 2. сущ. 1) профессионал; человек интеллектуального труда или свободной профессии 2) спортсмен-профессионал 3) тренер

Новый англо-русский словарь > professional
11 pro

prəu сокр. от professional профессионал( разговорное) профи (разговорное) сокр. от probation( разговорное) голос "за" довод в пользу чего-л. человек, голосующий или стоящий за что-л.;
сторонник( разговорное) за, в пользу чего-л. (разговорное) сокр. от prostitute проститутка( специальное) сокр. от prophilactic профилактическое средство pro rata в соответствии, в пропорции, пропорционально;
on a pro rata basis на пропорциональной основе pro сокр. разг. от professional ~ pref со значением: замещающий вместо;
prorector проректор, заместитель ректора ~ pref со значением: поддерживающий, защищающий за, про;
protariffreform являющийся сторонником тарифных реформ pro and con pl аргументы "за" и "против" ~ за и против pro rata в соответствии, в пропорции, пропорционально;
on a pro rata basis на пропорциональной основе rata: pro ~ в соответствии, в пропорции, пропорционально pro ~ в соответствии pro ~ пропорционально pro tempore, pro tem лат. на время, пока pro tempore, pro tem лат. на время, пока pro сокр. разг. от professional professional: professional имеющий профессию ~ имеющий профессию или специальность;
the professional classes адвокаты, учителя ~ имеющий специальность ~ профессионал ~ профессиональный ~ спортсменпрофессионал ~ человек интеллигентного труда ~ человек свободной профессии ~ pref со значением: замещающий вместо;
prorector проректор, заместитель ректора ~ pref со значением: поддерживающий, защищающий за, про;
protariffreform являющийся сторонником тарифных реформ

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > pro
12 pro

[prəu]

pro rata в соответствии, в пропорции, пропорционально; on a pro rata basis на пропорциональной основе pro сокр. разг. от professional pro pref со значением: замещающий вместо; prorector проректор, заместитель ректора pro pref со значением: поддерживающий, защищающий за, про; protariffreform являющийся сторонником тарифных реформ pro and con pl аргументы "за" и "против" pro за и против pro rata в соответствии, в пропорции, пропорционально; on a pro rata basis на пропорциональной основе rata: pro pro в соответствии, в пропорции, пропорционально pro pro в соответствии pro pro пропорционально pro tempore, pro tem лат. на время, пока pro tempore, pro tem лат. на время, пока pro сокр. разг. от professional professional: professional имеющий профессию pro имеющий профессию или специальность; the professional classes адвокаты, учителя pro имеющий специальность pro профессионал pro профессиональный pro спортсменпрофессионал pro человек интеллигентного труда pro человек свободной профессии pro pref со значением: замещающий вместо; prorector проректор, заместитель ректора pro pref со значением: поддерживающий, защищающий за, про; protariffreform являющийся сторонником тарифных реформ

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13 Historical Portugal

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal
14 History of volleyball

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William G. Morgan (1870-1942) inventor of the game of volleyball

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William G. Morgan (1870-1942), who was born in the State of New York, has gone down in history as the inventor of the game of volleyball, to which he originally gave the name "Mintonette".

The young Morgan carried out his undergraduate studies at the Springfield College of the YMCA (Young Men's Christian Association) where he met James Naismith who, in 1891, had invented basketball. After graduating, Morgan spent his first year at the Auburn (Maine) YMCA after which, during the summer of 1896, he moved to the YMCA at Holyoke (Massachusetts) where he became Director of Physical Education. In this role he had the opportunity to establish, develop, and direct a vast programme of exercises and sports classes for male adults.

His leadership was enthusiastically accepted, and his classes grew in numbers. He came to realise that he needed a certain type of competitive recreational game in order to vary his programme. Basketball, which sport was beginning to develop, seemed to suit young people, but it was necessary to find a less violent and less intense alternative for the older members.

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History Of Volleyball

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In 1995, the sport of Volleyball was 100 years old!

The sport originated in the United States, and is now just achieving the type of popularity in the U.S. that it has received on a global basis, where it ranks behind only soccer among participation sports.

Today there are more than 46 million Americans who play volleyball. There are 800 million players worldwide who play Volleyball at least once a week.

In 1895, William G. Morgan, an instructor at the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA) in Holyoke, Mass., decided to blend elements of basketball, baseball, tennis, and handball to create a game for his classes of businessmen which would demand less physical contact than basketball. He created the game of Volleyball (at that time called mintonette). Morgan borrowed the net from tennis, and raised it 6 feet 6 inches above the floor, just above the average man's head.

During a demonstration game, someone remarked to Morgan that the players seemed to be volleying the ball back and forth over the net, and perhaps "volleyball" would be a more descriptive name for the sport.

On July 7, 1896 at Springfield College the first game of "volleyball" was played.

In 1900, a special ball was designed for the sport.

1900 - YMCA spread volleyball to Canada, the Orient, and the Southern Hemisphere.

1905 - YMCA spread volleyball to Cuba

1907 Volleyball was presented at the Playground of America convention as one of the most popular sports

1909 - YMCA spread volleyball to Puerto Rico

1912 - YMCA spread volleyball to Uruguay

1913 - Volleyball competition held in Far Eastern Games

1917 - YMCA spread volleyball to Brazil

In 1916, in the Philippines, an offensive style of passing the ball in a high trajectory to be struck by another player (the set and spike) were introduced. The Filipinos developed the "bomba" or kill, and called the hitter a "bomberino".

1916 - The NCAA was invited by the YMCA to aid in editing the rules and in promoting the sport. Volleyball was added to school and college physical education and intramural programs.

In 1917, the game was changed from 21 to 15 points.

1919 American Expeditionary Forces distributed 16,000 volleyballs to it's troops and allies. This provided a stimulus for the growth of volleyball in foreign lands.

In 1920, three hits per side and back row attack rules were instituted.

In 1922, the first YMCA national championships were held in Brooklyn, NY. 27 teams from 11 states were represented.

In 1928, it became clear that tournaments and rules were needed, the United States Volleyball Association (USVBA, now USA Volleyball) was formed. The first U.S. Open was staged, as the field was open to non-YMCA squads.

1930's Recreational sports programs became an important part of American life

In 1930, the first two-man beach game was played.

In 1934, the approval and recognition of national volleyball referees.

In 1937, at the AAU convention in Boston, action was taken to recognize the U.S. Volleyball Association as the official national governing body in the U.S.

Late 1940s Forearm pass introduced to the game (as a desperation play) Most balls played with overhand pass

1946 A study of recreation in the United States showed that volleyball ranked fifth among team sports being promoted and organized

In 1947, the Federation Internationale De Volley-Ball (FIVB) was founded in Paris.

In 1948, the first two-man beach tournament was held.

In 1949, the first World Championships were held in Prague, Czechoslovakia.

1949 USVBA added a collegiate division, for competitive college teams. For the first ten years collegiate competition was sparse. Teams formed only through the efforts of interested students and instructors. Many teams dissolved when the interested individuals left the college. Competitive teams were scattered, with no collegiate governing bodies providing leadership in the sport.

1951 - Volleyball was played by over 50 million people each year in over 60 countries

1955 - Pan American Games included volleyball

1957 - The International Olympic Committee (IOC) designated volleyball as an Olympic team sport, to be included in the 1964 Olympic Games.

1959 - International University Sports Federation (FISU) held the first University Games in Turin, Italy. Volleyball was one of the eight competitions held.

1960 Seven midwestern institutions formed the Midwest Intercollegiate Volleyball Association (MIVA)

1964Southern California Intercollegiate Volleyball Association (SCVIA) was formed in California

1960's new techniques added to the game included - the soft spike (dink), forearm pass (bump), blocking across the net, and defensive diving and rolling.

In 1964, Volleyball was introduced to the Olympic Games in Tokyo.

The Japanese volleyball used in the 1964 Olympics, consisted of a rubber carcass with leather panelling. A similarly constructed ball is used in most modern competition.

In 1965, the California Beach Volleyball Association (CBVA) was formed.

1968 National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) made volleyball their fifteenth competitive sport.

1969 The Executive Committee of the NCAA proposed addition of volleyball to its program.

In 1974, the World Championships in Mexico were telecast in Japan.

In 1975, the US National Women's team began a year-round training regime in Pasadena, Texas (moved to Colorado Springs in 1979, Coto de Caza and Fountain Valley, CA in 1980, and San Diego, CA in 1985).

In 1977, the US National Men's team began a year-round training regime in Dayton, Ohio (moved to San Diego, CA in 1981).

In 1983, the Association of Volleyball Professionals (AVP) was formed.

In 1984, the US won their first medals at the Olympics in Los Angeles. The Men won the Gold, and the Women the Silver.

In 1986, the Women's Professional Volleyball Association (WPVA) was formed.

In 1987, the FIVB added a Beach Volleyball World Championship Series.

In 1988, the US Men repeated the Gold in the Olympics in Korea.

In 1989, the FIVB Sports Aid Program was created.

In 1990, the World League was created.

In 1992, the Four Person Pro Beach League was started in the United States.

In 1994, Volleyball World Wide, created.

In 1995, the sport of Volleyball was 100 years old!

In 1996, 2-person beach volleyball was added to the Olympics

There is a good book, "Volleyball Centennial: The First 100 Years", available on the history of the sport.

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Copyright (c)Volleyball World Wide

Volleyball World Wide on the Computer Internet/WWW

http://www.Volleyball.ORG/

English-Albanian dictionary > History of volleyball
15 strike

strike [straɪk]

grève ⇒ 1 (a) raid ⇒ 1 (b) attaque ⇒ 1 (b) escadre ⇒ 1 (c) découverte ⇒ 1 (d) sonnerie ⇒ 1 (e) frapper ⇒ 3 (a), 3 (c)-(e), 3 (n), 4 (a) toucher ⇒ 3 (a) atteindre ⇒ 3 (a) heurter ⇒ 3 (b) sonner ⇒ 3 (f), 4 (d) jouer ⇒ 3 (g) conclure ⇒ 3 (h) rendre ⇒ 3 (j) découvrir ⇒ 3 (l) attaquer ⇒ 3 (q), 4 (b) faire grève ⇒ 4 (c)

(pt & pp struck [strʌk], cont striking)

1 noun

(a) Industry grève f;

∎ to go on strike se mettre en ou faire grève;

∎ to be (out) on strike être en grève;

∎ to threaten strike action menacer de faire ou de se mettre en grève;

∎ the Italian air strike la grève des transports aériens en Italie;

∎ railway strike grève f des chemins de fer;

∎ teachers' strike grève f des enseignants;

∎ coal or miners' strike grève f des mineurs;

∎ postal or post office strike grève f des postes;

∎ rent strike grève f des loyers

(b) Military raid m, attaque f; (by bird of prey, snake) attaque f;

∎ to carry out air strikes against or on enemy bases lancer des raids aériens contre des bases ennemies;

∎ retaliatory strike raid m de représailles; (nuclear) deuxième frappe f

(c) Aviation & Military (planes) escadre f (d'avions participant à un raid)

(d) Petroleum industry & Mining (discovery) découverte f;

∎ a gold strike la découverte d'un gisement d'or;

∎ the recent oil strikes in the North Sea la découverte récente de gisements de pétrole en mer du Nord;

∎ it was a lucky strike c'était un coup de chance

(e) (of clock → chime, mechanism) sonnerie f;

∎ life was regulated by the strike of the church clock la vie était rythmée par la cloche de l'église

(f) (act or instance of hitting) coup m; (sound) bruit m;

∎ the strike of iron on iron le bruit du fer qui frappe le fer;

∎ he adjusted the strike of the keys on the platen roll il a réglé la frappe des caractères contre le cylindre

(g) (in baseball) strike m; American figurative (black mark) mauvais point m;

∎ figurative he has two strikes against him il est mal parti;

∎ figurative being too young was another strike against her le fait d'être trop jeune constituait un handicap supplémentaire pour elle

(h) (in bowling) honneur m double;

∎ to get or to score a strike réussir un honneur double

(i) Fishing (by fisherman) ferrage m; (by fish) touche f

(j) archaic

∎ at the strike of day à la pointe ou au point du jour

2 compound-forming noun

(a) (committee, movement) de grève

(b) Military (mission) d'intervention, d'attaque; (aircraft) d'assaut

3 transitive verb

(a) (hit → gen) frapper; (→ of bullet, torpedo, bomb) toucher, atteindre;

∎ she raised her hand to strike him elle leva la main pour le frapper;

∎ he struck me with his fist il m'a donné un coup de poing;

∎ the chairman struck the table with his gavel le président donna un coup de marteau sur la table;

∎ she took the vase and struck him on or over the head elle saisit le vase et lui donna un coup sur la tête;

∎ she struck him across the face elle lui a donné une gifle;

∎ a light breeze struck the sails une légère brise gonfla les voiles;

∎ the phenomenon occurs when warm air strikes cold ce phénomène se produit lorsque de l'air chaud entre en contact avec de l'air froid;

∎ a wave struck the side of the boat une vague a heurté le côté du bateau;

∎ the arrow struck the target la flèche a atteint la cible;

∎ a hail of bullets struck the car la voiture a été mitraillée;

∎ he was struck by a piece of shrapnel il a été touché par ou il a reçu un éclat de grenade;

∎ to be struck by lightning être frappé par la foudre, être foudroyé;

∎ he went for them striking blows left and right il s'est jeté sur eux, distribuant les coups de tous côtés;

∎ who struck the first blow? qui a porté le premier coup?, qui a frappé le premier?;

∎ he struck the tree a mighty blow with the axe il a donné un grand coup de hache dans l'arbre;

∎ the trailer struck the post a glancing blow la remorque a percuté le poteau en passant;

∎ figurative to strike a blow for democracy/women's rights (law, event) faire progresser la démocratie/les droits de la femme; (person, group) marquer des points en faveur de la démocratie/des droits des femmes

(b) (bump into, collide with) heurter, cogner;

∎ his foot struck the bar on his first jump son pied a heurté la barre lors de son premier saut;

∎ she fell and struck her head on or against the kerb elle s'est cogné la tête contre le bord du trottoir en tombant;

∎ the Volvo struck the bus head on la Volvo a heurté le bus de plein fouet;

∎ Nautical we've struck ground! nous avons touché (le fond)!

(c) (afflict → of drought, disease, worry, regret) frapper; (→ of storm, hurricane, disaster, wave of violence) s'abattre sur, frapper;

∎ an earthquake struck the city un tremblement de terre a frappé la ville;

∎ he was struck by a heart attack il a eu une crise cardiaque;

∎ the pain struck her as she tried to get up la douleur l'a saisie au moment où elle essayait de se lever;

∎ I was struck by or with doubts j'ai été pris de doute, le doute s'est emparé de moi

(d) (occur to) frapper;

∎ only later did it strike me as unusual ce n'est que plus tard que j'ai trouvé ça ou que cela m'a paru bizarre;

∎ it suddenly struck him how little had changed il a soudain pris conscience du fait que peu de choses avaient changé;

∎ did it never strike you that you weren't wanted there? ne vous est-il jamais venu à l'esprit que vous étiez de trop?;

∎ a terrible thought struck her une idée affreuse lui vint à l'esprit;

∎ it strikes me as useless/as the perfect gift ça me semble ou paraît inutile/être le cadeau idéal;

∎ he strikes me as (being) sincere il me paraît sincère;

∎ it doesn't strike me as being the best course of action il ne me semble pas que ce soit la meilleure voie à suivre

(e) (impress) frapper, impressionner;

∎ the first thing that struck me was his pallor la première chose qui m'a frappé, c'était sa pâleur;

∎ what strikes you is the silence ce qui (vous) frappe, c'est le silence;

∎ how did she strike you? quelle impression vous a-t-elle faite?, quel effet vous a-t-elle fait?;

∎ how did Tokyo/the film strike you? comment avez-vous trouvé Tokyo/le film?;

∎ we can eat here and meet them later, how does that strike you? on peut manger ici et les retrouver plus tard, qu'en penses-tu?;

∎ I was very struck British with or American by the flat l'appartement m'a plu énormément;

∎ I wasn't very struck British with or American by his colleague son collègue ne m'a pas fait une grande impression

(f) (chime) sonner;

∎ the church clock struck five l'horloge de l'église a sonné cinq heures;

∎ it was striking midnight as we left minuit sonnait quand nous partîmes

(g) (play → note, chord) jouer;

∎ she struck a few notes on the piano elle a joué quelques notes sur le piano;

∎ when he struck the opening chords the audience applauded quand il a joué ou plaqué les premiers accords le public a applaudi;

∎ to strike a false note Music faire une fausse note; figurative (speech) sonner faux;

∎ his presence/his words struck a gloomy note sa présence a/ses paroles ont mis une note de tristesse;

∎ the report strikes an optimistic note/a note of warning for the future le rapport est très optimiste/très alarmant pour l'avenir;

∎ does it strike a chord? est-ce que cela te rappelle ou dit quelque chose?;

∎ to strike a chord with the audience faire vibrer la foule;

∎ her description of company life will strike a chord with many managers beaucoup de cadres se reconnaîtront dans sa description de la vie en entreprise

(h) (arrive at, reach → deal, treaty, agreement) conclure;

∎ to strike a bargain conclure un marché;

∎ I'll strike a bargain with you je te propose un marché;

∎ it's not easy to strike a balance between too much and too little freedom il n'est pas facile de trouver un équilibre ou de trouver le juste milieu entre trop et pas assez de liberté

(i) (cause a feeling of)

∎ to strike fear or terror into sb remplir qn d'effroi

(j) (cause to become) rendre;

∎ to strike sb blind/dumb rendre qn aveugle/muet;

∎ the news struck us speechless with horror nous sommes restés muets d'horreur en apprenant la nouvelle;

∎ I was struck dumb by the sheer cheek of the man! je suis resté muet devant le culot de cet homme!;

∎ a stray bullet struck him dead il a été tué par une balle perdue;

∎ she was struck dead by a heart attack elle a été foudroyée par une crise cardiaque;

∎ God strike me dead if I lie! je jure que c'est la vérité!

(k) (ignite → match) frotter, allumer; (→ sparks) faire jaillir;

∎ he struck a match or a light il a frotté une allumette;

∎ British familiar old-fashioned strike a light! nom de Dieu!

(l) (discover → gold) découvrir; (→ oil, water) trouver; (path) tomber sur, découvrir;

∎ familiar British to strike it lucky, American to strike it rich (make material gain) trouver le filon; (be lucky) avoir de la veine

(m) (adopt → attitude) adopter;

∎ he struck an attitude of wounded righteousness il a pris un air de dignité offensée

(n) (mint → coin, medal) frapper

(o) (take down → tent) démonter; Nautical (→ sail) amener, baisser;

∎ to strike camp lever le camp;

∎ Nautical to strike the flag or the colours amener les couleurs;

∎ Theatre to strike the set démonter le décor

(p) (delete → name, remark, person) rayer; (→ from professional register) radier;

∎ that remark must be struck or American stricken from the record cette remarque doit être retirée du procès-verbal

(q) (attack) attaquer

(r) American (go on strike at)

∎ the union is striking four of the company's plants le syndicat a déclenché des grèves dans quatre des usines de la société;

∎ students are striking their classes les étudiants font la grève des cours;

∎ the dockers are striking ships carrying industrial waste les dockers refusent de s'occuper des cargos chargés de déchets industriels

(s) Botany

∎ to strike roots prendre racine;

∎ the tree had struck deep roots into the ground l'arbre avait des racines très profondes

4 intransitive verb

(a) (hit) frapper;

∎ she struck at me with her umbrella elle essaya de me frapper avec son parapluie;

∎ to strike home (blow) porter; (missile, remark) faire mouche;

∎ familiar to strike lucky avoir de la veine;

∎ proverb strike while the iron is hot il faut battre le fer pendant qu'il est chaud

(b) (attack → gen) attaquer; (→ snake) mordre; (→ wild animal) sauter ou bondir sur sa proie; (→ bird of prey) fondre ou s'abattre sur sa proie;

∎ the bombers struck at dawn les bombardiers attaquèrent à l'aube;

∎ the murderer has struck again l'assassin a encore frappé;

∎ these are measures which strike at the root/heart of the problem voici des mesures qui attaquent le problème à la racine/qui s'attaquent au cœur du problème;

∎ this latest incident strikes right at the heart of government policy ce dernier incident remet complètement en cause la politique gouvernementale

(c) Industry faire grève;

∎ they're striking for more pay ils font grève pour obtenir une augmentation de salaire;

∎ the nurses struck over the minister's decision to freeze wages les infirmières ont fait grève suite à la décision du ministre de bloquer les salaires

(d) (chime) sonner;

∎ midnight had already struck minuit avait déjà sonné

(e) (happen suddenly → illness, disaster, earthquake) survenir, se produire, arriver;

∎ we were travelling quietly along when disaster struck nous roulions tranquillement lorsque la catastrophe s'est produite;

∎ the first tremors struck at 3 a.m. les premières secousses sont survenues à 3 heures du matin

(f) (travel, head)

∎ to strike across country prendre à travers champs;

∎ they then struck west ils sont ensuite partis vers l'ouest

(g) Sport (score) marquer

(h) Fishing (fisherman) ferrer; (fish) mordre (à l'hameçon)

(i) (of cutting) prendre (racine)

►► strike ballot = vote avant que les syndicats ne décident d'une grève;

Insurance strike clause clause f pour cas de grève;

strike force (nuclear capacity) force f de frappe; (of police, soldiers → squad) détachement m ou brigade f d'intervention; (→ larger force) force f d'intervention;

strike fund = caisse de prévoyance permettant d'aider les grévistes;

strike pay salaire m de gréviste (versé par le syndicat ou par un fonds de solidarité);

Finance strike price (for share) prix m d'exercice

➲ strike back intransitive verb

(a) (retaliate) se venger; Military contre-attaquer;

∎ the government struck back at its critics le gouvernement a répondu à ceux qui le critiquaient

(b) Sport (score in response) marquer à son tour

➲ strike down separable transitive verb

foudroyer, terrasser;

∎ figurative struck down by disease terrassé par la maladie

➲ strike off

1 separable transitive verb

(a) (delete, remove → from list) rayer, barrer; (→ from professional register) radier;

∎ to be struck off (doctor, solicitor) être radié

(b) (sever) couper

(c) Typography tirer

2 intransitive verb

∎ (go) to strike off to the left prendre à gauche;

∎ we struck off into the forest nous sommes entrés ou avons pénétré dans la forêt

➲ strike on inseparable transitive verb

British (solution, right answer) trouver (par hasard), tomber sur; (plan) trouver; (idea) avoir

➲ strike out

1 separable transitive verb

(a) (cross out) rayer, barrer

(b) (in baseball) éliminer

2 intransitive verb

(a) (set up on one's own) s'établir à son compte

(b) (go)

∎ she struck out across the fields elle prit à travers champs;

∎ figurative they decided to strike out into a new direction ils ont décidé de prendre une nouvelle direction

(c) (swim)

∎ we struck out for the shore nous avons commencé à nager en direction de la côte

(d) (aim a blow) frapper;

∎ she struck out at him elle essaya de le frapper; figurative elle s'en est prise à lui;

∎ they struck out in all directions with their truncheons ils distribuaient des coups de matraque à droite et à gauche

(e) (in baseball) être éliminé

➲ strike through separable transitive verb

British (cross out) rayer, barrer

➲ strike up

1 inseparable transitive verb

(a) (start)

∎ to strike up a conversation with sb engager la conversation avec qn;

∎ they immediately struck up a conversation ils sont immédiatement entrés en conversation;

∎ to strike up an acquaintance/a friendship with sb lier connaissance/se lier d'amitié avec qn

(b) Music (start playing) commencer à jouer;

∎ the band struck up the national anthem l'orchestre commença à jouer l'hymne national ou entonna les premières mesures de l'hymne national

2 intransitive verb

(musician, orchestra) commencer à jouer; (music) commencer

➲ strike upon British = strike on

Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > strike
16 name

name [neɪm]

nom ⇒ 1 (a)-(d) réputation ⇒ 1 (c) personnage ⇒ 1 (d) nommer ⇒ 3 (a)-(c) désigner ⇒ 3 (b), 3 (c) citer ⇒ 3 (b)

1 noun

(a) (of person, animal) nom m; (of company) raison f sociale; Finance (of account) intitulé m; (of ship) devise f, nom m; (of play, novel etc) titre m;

∎ full name nom et prénoms mpl;

∎ what's your name? quel est votre nom?, comment vous appelez-vous?;

∎ my name's Richard je m'appelle Richard;

∎ what name shall I say? (to caller) qui dois-je annoncer?;

∎ the house is in his wife's name la maison est au nom de sa femme;

∎ I know her only by name je ne la connais que de nom;

∎ she knows all the children by name elle connaît le nom de tous les enfants;

∎ to mention sb/sth by name nommer qn/qch;

∎ the shares are in my name les actions sont à mon nom;

∎ he is known or he goes by the name of Penn il est connu sous le nom de Penn, il se fait appeler Penn;

∎ someone by or of the name of Penn quelqu'un du nom de ou qui s'appelle Penn;

∎ American familiar a guy name of Jones un type du nom de Jones;

∎ I know it by or under a different name je le connais sous un autre nom;

∎ he writes novels under the name of A.B. Alderman il écrit des romans sous le pseudonyme de A.B. Alderman;

∎ our dog answers to the name of Oscar notre chien répond au nom d'Oscar;

∎ to put a name to a face mettre un nom sur un visage;

∎ have you put your name down for evening classes? est-ce que vous vous êtes inscrit aux cours du soir?;

∎ she was his wife in all but name ils n'étaient pas mariés, mais c'était tout comme;

∎ to take sb's name (of police officer) prendre le nom de qn; Football donner un carton jaune à qn;

∎ Football he had his name taken il a eu un carton jaune;

∎ he is president in name only il n'a de président que le nom, c'est un président sans pouvoir;

∎ Cannon Gait is a huge name in the publishing business Cannon Gait est une entreprise très importante dans le monde de l'édition;

∎ what's in a name? on n'a pas toujours le nom que l'on mérite;

∎ to call sb names injurier ou insulter qn;

∎ she called me a rude name elle m'a insulté;

∎ money is the name of the game c'est une affaire d'argent;

∎ ah well, that's the name of the game c'est comme ça!, c'est la vie!;

∎ not to have a penny/a decent pair of shoes to one's name ne pas avoir un centime/une paire de chaussures convenable à soi;

∎ to have several books to one's name être l'auteur de plusieurs livres;

∎ the company trades under the name of Scandia la société a pour dénomination Scandia

(b) (sake, authority) nom m;

∎ in the name of freedom au nom de la liberté;

∎ in God's name!, in the name of God! pour l'amour de Dieu!;

∎ familiar what in the name of God or Heaven are you doing? que diable faites-vous là?;

∎ in the name of the law au nom de la loi;

∎ halt in the name of the King! halte-là, au nom du Roi!

(c) (reputation → professional or business) nom m, réputation f;

∎ to make or to win a name for oneself se faire un nom ou une réputation;

∎ we have the company's (good) name to think of il faut penser au renom de la société;

∎ they have a name for efficiency ils ont la réputation d'être efficaces;

∎ to have a good/bad name avoir (une) bonne/mauvaise réputation;

∎ to get a bad name se faire une mauvaise réputation

(d) (famous person) nom m, personnage m;

∎ he's a big name in the art world c'est une figure de proue du monde des arts;

∎ all the great political names were there tous les ténors de la scène politique étaient présents;

∎ famous name (person) célébrité f

2 compound-forming noun

Commerce (product) de marque

3 transitive verb

(a) (give name to → person, animal) nommer, appeler, donner un nom à; (→ ship, discovery) baptiser;

∎ they named the baby Felix ils ont appelé ou prénommé le bébé Felix;

∎ she wanted to name her son after the President elle voulait donner à son fils le prénom du président, elle voulait que son fils porte le prénom du président;

∎ American the building is named for Abraham Lincoln on a donné au bâtiment le nom d'Abraham Lincoln;

∎ the guy named Chip le dénommé Chip

(b) (give name of) désigner, nommer; (cite) citer, mentionner;

∎ the journalist refused to name his source le journaliste a refusé de révéler ou de donner le nom de son informateur;

∎ whatever you need, just name it vos moindres désirs seront exaucés;

∎ you name it, we've got it demandez-nous n'importe quoi, nous l'avons;

∎ name the books of the Old Testament citez les livres de l'Ancien Testament;

∎ to name names donner des noms;

∎ let us name no names ne nommons personne;

∎ he is named as one of the consultants son nom est cité ou mentionné en tant que consultant;

∎ Law to name sb as a beneficiary (in one's will) désigner qn comme bénéficiaire;

∎ Law to name sb as a witness citer qn comme témoin;

∎ to name and shame dénoncer publiquement les responsables

(c) (appoint) nommer, désigner;

∎ she has been named as president elle a été nommée présidente;

∎ she was named (as) best supporting actress elle a été élue pour le meilleur second rôle féminin;

∎ 22 June has been named as the date for the elections la date du 22 juin a été retenue ou choisie pour les élections;

∎ name your price votre prix sera le mien, dites votre prix;

∎ they've finally named the day ils ont enfin fixé la date de leur mariage

(d) British Politics

∎ to name an MP ≃ suspendre un député

4 Name noun

= titre réservé aux membres investissant leur fortune personnelle dans la compagnie d'assurances Lloyd's et s'engageant à avoir une responsabilité illimitée en cas de sinistre

►► Marketing name brand marque f;

name day (of person) fête f; Stock Exchange deuxième jour m de liquidation;

∎ today is his name day c'est aujourd'hui sa fête;

Marketing name licensing cession f de licence de nom;

British Cinema & Theatre name part vrai rôle m; (title role) = rôle qui donne son titre à la pièce ou au film;

Marketing name product marque f

Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > name
17 division

noun

1) see academic.ru/21451/divide">divide 1. 1): Teilung/Auf-/Ein-/Zerteilung, die

2) (parting) (of things) Abtrennung, die; (of persons) Trennung, die; (marking off) Abgrenzung, die

3) (distinguishing) Unterscheidung, die; Abgrenzung, die ( from gegenüber)

4) (distributing) Verteilung, die (between/among an + Akk.); (sharing) Teilen, das

5) (disagreement) Unstimmigkeit, die

6) (Math.) Teilen, das; Dividieren, das; Division, die (fachspr.)

do division — dividieren

long division — ausführliche Division ( mit Aufschreiben der Zwischenprodukte)

short division — verkürzte Division (ohne Aufschreiben der Zwischenprodukte)

7) (separation in voting) Abstimmung [durch Hammelsprung]

8) (part) Unterteilung, die; Abschnitt, der

9) (section) Abteilung, die; (group) Gruppe, die; (Mil. etc.) Division, die; (of police) Einheit, die

10) (Footb. etc.) Liga, die; Spielklasse, die; (in British football) Division, die

* * *

[di'viʒən]

noun

1) ((an) act of dividing.) die Teilung

2) (something that separates; a dividing line: a ditch marks the division between their two fields.) die Grenze

3) (a part or section (of an army etc): He belongs to B division of the local police force.) die Abteilung, die Division

4) ((a) separation of thought; disagreement.) die Uneinigkeit

5) (the finding of how many times one number is contained in another.) die Division

* * *

di·vi·sion

[dɪˈvɪʒ^ən]

n

1. no pl (sharing) Verteilung f

\division of the tasks Aufgabenverteilung f

2. no pl (break-up) Teilung f

3. (section) Teil m

the main \divisions of sth die Hauptbestandteile einer S. gen

4. (disagreement) Meinungsverschiedenheit f

to have a \division of opinion anderer Meinung sein

\division within a party Gespaltenheit f innerhalb einer Partei

5. (difference) Kluft f

the \division between the rich and the poor die Kluft zwischen Reich und Arm

6. (border) Grenze f, Trennlinie f

7. no pl MATH Division f, Dividieren nt, Teilen nt

to do \division dividieren

8. MIL (unit) Division f

an infantry \division eine Infanteriedivision

9. (department) Abteilung f, Sparte f, Referat nt

10. (league) Liga f

first/second/third \division erste/zweite/dritte Liga

to be in the first \division erstklassig sein

11. BRIT POL Abstimmung f durch Hammelsprung

12. LAW (main section) [Gerichts]abteilung f, Kammer f, Senat m

13. (company) Tochtergesellschaft f

* * *
[dI'vIZən]
n

1) (= act of dividing, state of being divided) Teilung f; (MATH) Teilen nt, Division f

we're learning division — wir lernen Teilen or Dividieren

he can't do division — er kann nicht teilen or dividieren

or labor (US) — die Arbeitsteilung

2) (MIL) Division f

3) (= result of dividing in administration) Abteilung f; (in box, case) Fach nt; (= part) Teil m; (= category) Kategorie f

the bank's European division — die für Europa zuständige Abteilung der Bank

the sales division — die Verkaufsabteilung

4) (= that which divides in room) Trennwand f; (fig between social classes etc) Schranke f; (= dividing line lit, fig) Trennungslinie f

5) (fig: discord) Uneinigkeit f

6) (Brit PARL)

to call for a division — eine Abstimmung durch Hammelsprung verlangen

7) (SPORT) Liga f

* * *

division [dıˈvıʒn] s

1. Teilung f

2. Zerteilung f, Spaltung f, fig auch Entzweiung f

3. (Ab)Trennung f ( from von):

division of property JUR Gütertrennung

4. (Ver)Teilung f:

division of labo(u)r Arbeitsteilung

5. Verteilung f, Aus-, Aufteilung f

6. WIRTSCH Ausschüttung f (einer Dividende)

7. Gliederung f, Einteilung f ( beide:

into in akk)

8. MATH

a) Division f:

long division ungekürzte Division;

division sign Teilungszeichen n

b) Schnitt m

9. Trenn(ungs)linie f:

division wall Trennwand f

10. Grenze f, Grenzlinie f

11. Abschnitt m, Teil m

12. Spaltung f, Kluft f, Uneinigkeit f

13. PARL Br (Abstimmung f durch) Hammelsprung m:

go into division zur Abstimmung schreiten;

take a division eine Abstimmung vornehmen;

upon a division nach Abstimmung;

division bell Glocke, die die Abgeordneten zur Abstimmung ruft; → lobby A 2 b

14. Abteilung f ( auch UNIV und eines Ministeriums)

15. JUR Br Kammer f ( des High Court of Justice)

16. (Verwaltungs-, Gerichts-, Br auch Wahl)Bezirk m

17. MIL Division f ( auch SCHIFF)

18. Gruppe f, Klasse f, Kategorie f

19. BIOL (Unter)Gruppe f, (Unter)Abteilung f

20. SPORT

a) Liga f, Spielklasse f

b) (Boxen etc) (Gewichts) Klasse f

21. a) Fachgruppe f (der Industrie)

b) Industriezweig m

div. abk

1. divided

2. WIRTSCH dividend

3. division

4. MATH divisor

5. divorced

* * *

noun

1) see divide 1. 1): Teilung/Auf-/Ein-/Zerteilung, die

2) (parting) (of things) Abtrennung, die; (of persons) Trennung, die; (marking off) Abgrenzung, die

3) (distinguishing) Unterscheidung, die; Abgrenzung, die ( from gegenüber)

4) (distributing) Verteilung, die (between/among an + Akk.); (sharing) Teilen, das

5) (disagreement) Unstimmigkeit, die

6) (Math.) Teilen, das; Dividieren, das; Division, die (fachspr.)

do division — dividieren

long division — ausführliche Division ( mit Aufschreiben der Zwischenprodukte)

short division — verkürzte Division (ohne Aufschreiben der Zwischenprodukte)

7) (separation in voting) Abstimmung [durch Hammelsprung]

8) (part) Unterteilung, die; Abschnitt, der

9) (section) Abteilung, die; (group) Gruppe, die; (Mil. etc.) Division, die; (of police) Einheit, die

10) (Footb. etc.) Liga, die; Spielklasse, die; (in British football) Division, die

* * *

(military) n.

Abteilung (Militär) f. (professional sport) n.

Liga Ligen f. n.

Abteilung f.

Division -en f.

Einteilung f.

Skalenteilung f.

Spaltung -en f.

Teilung -en f.

Trennung -en f.

English-german dictionary > division
18 train

train [treɪn]

1 noun

(a) (on railway) train m; (on underground) métro m, rame f;

∎ to go by train prendre le train, aller en train;

∎ the 5 o'clock train le train de 5 heures;

∎ the Cardiff train, the train to Cardiff le train de Cardiff;

∎ I met a friend on the train j'ai rencontré un ami dans le train;

∎ to transport goods by train transporter des marchandises par voie ferrée ou rail;

∎ to the trains (sign) accès aux quais

(b) (procession → of vehicles) file f, cortège m; (→ of mules) file f; (→ of camels) caravane f; Military convoi m; (retinue) suite f, équipage m; Military équipage m;

∎ the famine brought disease in its train la maladie succéda à la famine;

∎ the evils that follow in the train of war les maux que la guerre engendre

(c) (of dress) traîne f

(d) (connected sequence) suite f, série f;

∎ in an unbroken train en succession ininterrompue;

∎ a train of events une suite d'événements;

∎ a train of thought un enchaînement d'idées;

∎ my remark interrupted her train of thought ma remarque a interrompu le fil de sa pensée ou ses pensées;

∎ to follow sb's train of thought suivre le raisonnement de qn

(e) Technology train m;

∎ train of gears train m d'engrenage

(f) formal (progress)

∎ in train en marche;

∎ to set sth in train mettre qch en marche

(g) (fuse) amorce f; (of gunpowder) traînée f (de poudre)

2 compound-forming noun

(dispute, strike) des cheminots, des chemins de fer; (reservation, ticket) de train;

∎ there is a good train service to the city la ville est bien desservie par le train;

∎ there is an hourly train service il y a des trains toutes les heures

3 transitive verb

(a) (employee, soldier) former; (voice) travailler; (ear) exercer; (animal) dresser; (mind) former; Sport entraîner;

∎ he is training sb to take over from him il forme son successeur;

∎ to train sb in a trade apprendre un métier à qn, préparer qn à un métier;

∎ she was trained in economics elle a reçu une formation d'économiste;

∎ he was trained at Sandhurst il a fait ses classes à Sandhurst;

∎ to train sb to use sth apprendre à qn à utiliser qch;

∎ he has been trained in the use of explosives il a été formé au maniement des explosifs;

∎ the dogs have been trained to detect explosives les chiens ont été dressés pour détecter les explosifs

(b) (direct, aim) braquer;

∎ he trained his gun on us il a braqué son arme sur nous

(c) (plant → by pruning) tailler; (→ by tying) palisser; (climbing plant) diriger, faire grimper

(d) familiar

∎ we trained it down to the South of France nous sommes allés en train jusque dans le Midi de la France^□

4 intransitive verb

(a) (do professional training) recevoir une formation;

∎ I trained as a translator j'ai reçu une formation de traducteur;

∎ she's training as a teacher elle suit une formation pédagogique;

∎ where did you train? où avez-vous reçu votre formation?

(b) Sport s'entraîner, se préparer

►► train set train m électrique;

train station gare f (de chemin de fer);

train surfing = pratique dangereuse qui consiste pour des jeunes à sauter sur le marche-pied d'un train qui démarre et sauter à nouveau sur le quai quand le train arrive au bout du quai

➲ train up separable transitive verb

former

Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > train

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Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

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the professional classes

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Словари и энциклопедии на Академике

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the professional classes

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